GridHandle.h

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// Copyright Contributors to the OpenVDB Project
// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
/*!
    \file nanovdb/GridHandle.h
 
    \author Ken Museth
 
    \date January 8, 2020
 
    \brief Defines GridHandle, which manages a memory buffer containing one
           or more NanoVDB grids: host-resident, dual host/device, or a
           single-space device-only buffer.
*/
 
#ifndef NANOVDB_GRID_HANDLE_H_HAS_BEEN_INCLUDED
#define NANOVDB_GRID_HANDLE_H_HAS_BEEN_INCLUDED
 
#include <fstream> // for std::ifstream
#include <iostream> // for std::cerr/cout
#include <cstring> // for std::memcpy
#include <stdexcept> // for std::runtime_error
#include <string> // for std::to_string
#include <vector>
#include <initializer_list>
 
#include <nanovdb/NanoVDB.h>// for toGridType
#include <nanovdb/HostBuffer.h>
#include <nanovdb/tools/GridChecksum.h>// for updateGridCount
 
namespace nanovdb {
 
// --------------------------> GridHandle <------------------------------------
 
struct GridHandleMetaData {uint64_t offset, size; GridType gridType;};
 
namespace cuda { namespace detail {
// Defined in nanovdb/cuda/HandleStorage.h: the one gateway to constructing a
// handle from a buffer plus already-validated metadata (handle-to-handle
// transfers), so the trust boundary stays visible in a single place.
struct HandleFactory;
}}// namespace cuda::detail
 
namespace detail {
 
/// @brief Allocates @c bytes of host-readable storage for a GridHandle:
///        through @c BufferT::create for buffers that provide it, and through
///        @c pool's resource for a host-accessible single-space buffer (e.g. a
///        pinned-resource cuda::Buffer). The braced third argument selects the
///        uninitialized-storage constructor without naming its tag type, so
///        this header stays CUDA-free.
template<typename BufferT>
inline BufferT createHostStorage(uint64_t bytes, const BufferT& pool)
{
    if constexpr (BufferHasHostSingle<BufferT>::value && BufferHasStream<BufferT>::value) {
        return BufferT(pool.stream(), pool.resource(), bytes, {});// stream-ordered resource: allocate on the pool's retained stream
    } else if constexpr (BufferHasHostSingle<BufferT>::value) {
        return BufferT(pool.resource(), bytes, {});
    } else {
        return BufferT::create(bytes, &pool);
    }
}
 
/// @brief Validates the grid chain in @a bytes of host-readable memory headed
///        by @a head and fills @a meta with one entry per grid: every header
///        must be valid, carry its expected index and the chain's total count,
///        and fit inside the buffer, so a truncated buffer or a forged header
///        is rejected before its metadata is trusted. This is the host
///        counterpart of the device-side chain parse, and it is what makes a
///        handle's metadata safe to adopt without re-validation (cuda::copyTo).
inline void parseHostGridChain(const GridData* head, uint64_t bytes, std::vector<GridHandleMetaData>& meta)
{
    if (bytes < sizeof(GridData))
        throw std::runtime_error("GridHandle: grid chain exceeds the host buffer (truncated or corrupt grid data)");
    if (!head->isValid()) throw std::runtime_error("GridHandle was constructed with an invalid host buffer");
    const uint32_t count = head->mGridCount;
    if (count == 0) throw std::runtime_error("GridHandle: host buffer contains no grids");
    if (uint64_t(count) > bytes / sizeof(GridData))// every grid is at least one full header
        throw std::runtime_error("GridHandle: grid chain exceeds the host buffer (truncated or corrupt grid data)");
    meta.resize(count);
    uint64_t offset = 0;
    for (uint32_t i = 0; i < count; ++i) {
        auto where = [&] { return " (grid " + std::to_string(i) + " of " + std::to_string(count) + ")"; };
        if (offset + sizeof(GridData) > bytes)
            throw std::runtime_error("GridHandle: grid chain exceeds the host buffer (truncated or corrupt grid data)" + where());
        // Read through a copy: a forged size in the preceding header can place this one at an
        // unaligned offset, where dereferencing a GridData pointer would be undefined behavior.
        alignas(GridData) unsigned char raw[sizeof(GridData)];
        std::memcpy(raw, util::PtrAdd<const void>(head, offset), sizeof(GridData));
        const GridData* data = reinterpret_cast<const GridData*>(raw);
        if (!data->isValid())
            throw std::runtime_error("GridHandle was constructed with an invalid host buffer" + where());
        if (data->mGridIndex != i || data->mGridCount != count)
            throw std::runtime_error("GridHandle: inconsistent grid index/count in the host buffer's grid chain" + where());
        if (data->mGridSize < sizeof(GridData) || data->mGridSize > bytes - offset)
            throw std::runtime_error("GridHandle: grid size field exceeds the host buffer (truncated or corrupt grid data)" + where());
        meta[i] = GridHandleMetaData{offset, data->mGridSize, data->mGridType};
        offset += data->mGridSize;
    }
}
 
}// namespace detail
 
/// @brief This class serves to manage a buffer containing one or more NanoVDB Grids.
///
/// @note  It is important to note that this class does NOT depend on OpenVDB.
template<typename BufferT = HostBuffer>
class GridHandle
{
    static_assert(!(BufferTraits<BufferT>::hasDeviceDual && BufferHasDeviceSingle<BufferT>::value),
                  "a buffer cannot be both dual-space and single-space");
    static_assert(!(BufferHasDeviceSingle<BufferT>::value || BufferHasHostSingle<BufferT>::value)
                      || BufferHasByteElements<BufferT>::value,
                  "GridHandle requires byte-addressed single-space storage, e.g. cuda::Buffer<std::byte, R>");
 
    std::vector<GridHandleMetaData> mMetaData;
    BufferT mBuffer;
 
    template <typename T>
    static T* no_const(const T* ptr) { return const_cast<T*>(ptr); }
 
    /// @brief Shared lookup behind grid() and deviceGrid(): the @a n'th grid
    ///        within @a base, or nullptr when @a base is null, @a n is out of
    ///        range, or the value type does not match the grid.
    template<typename ValueT>
    const NanoGrid<ValueT>* gridAt(const void* base, uint32_t n) const
    {
        if (base == nullptr || n >= mMetaData.size() || mMetaData[n].gridType != toGridType<ValueT>()) return nullptr;
        return util::PtrAdd<NanoGrid<ValueT>>(base, mMetaData[n].offset);
    }
 
    /// @brief Adopts a buffer whose metadata is already known, so a deep copy
    ///        does not re-parse and a non-default-constructible buffer (e.g.
    ///        over a ResourceRef) never needs default construction.
    GridHandle(BufferT&& buffer, std::vector<GridHandleMetaData> meta)
        : mMetaData(std::move(meta))
        , mBuffer(std::move(buffer)) {}
 
    friend struct cuda::detail::HandleFactory;
 
public:
    using BufferType = BufferT;
 
    /// @brief  Move constructor from a dual host-device buffer
    /// @param buffer buffer containing one or more NanoGrids that will be moved into this GridHandle
    /// @throw Will throw and error with the buffer does not contain a valid NanoGrid!
    /// @note The implementation of this template specialization is in nanovdb/cuda/GridHandle.cuh since it requires CUDA
    template<typename T = BufferT, typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<T>::hasDeviceDual, int>::type = 0>
    GridHandle(T&& buffer);
 
    /// @brief  Move constructor from a host buffer
    /// @param buffer buffer containing one or more NanoGrids that will be moved into this GridHandle
    /// @throw Will throw and error with the buffer does not contain a valid NanoGrid!
    template<typename T = BufferT, typename util::disable_if<BufferTraits<T>::hasDeviceDual || BufferHasDeviceSingle<T>::value, int>::type = 0>
    GridHandle(T&& buffer);
 
    /// @brief  Move constructor from a single-space device buffer: the grid
    ///         metadata is read through the device on the buffer's stream.
    /// @param buffer buffer containing one or more NanoGrids that will be moved into this GridHandle
    /// @throw Will throw an error if the buffer does not contain a valid NanoGrid
    /// @note The implementation of this template specialization is in nanovdb/cuda/GridHandle.cuh since it requires CUDA
    template<typename T = BufferT, typename util::enable_if<BufferHasDeviceSingle<T>::value, int>::type = 0, typename = void>
    GridHandle(T&& buffer);
 
    /// @brief Constructs an empty GridHandle
    GridHandle() = default;
 
    /// @brief Disallow copy-construction
    GridHandle(const GridHandle&) = delete;
 
    /// @brief Move copy-constructor
    GridHandle(GridHandle&& other) noexcept
        : mMetaData(std::move(other.mMetaData))
        , mBuffer(std::move(other.mBuffer)) {}
 
    /// @brief clear this GridHandle to an empty handle
    void reset() {
        if constexpr (BufferHasDestroy<BufferT>::value) mBuffer.destroy();
        else mBuffer.clear();
        mMetaData.clear();
    }
 
    /// @brief Disallow copy assignment operation
    GridHandle& operator=(const GridHandle&) = delete;
 
    /// @brief Move copy assignment operation
    GridHandle& operator=(GridHandle&& other) noexcept {
        mBuffer   = std::move(other.mBuffer);
        mMetaData = std::move(other.mMetaData);
        return *this;
    }
 
    /// @brief Performs a deep copy of the GridHandle, possibly templated on a different buffer type
    /// @tparam OtherBufferT Buffer type of the deep copy. A single-space device
    ///         handle only copies to its own buffer type (device-to-device,
    ///         ordered on the source's retained stream), so call it as
    ///         copy<BufferT>() -- the default OtherBufferT does not compile.
    /// @param buffer optional buffer used for allocation; a compile error for
    ///        single-space handles, which allocate through the source buffer's
    ///        resource (use the no-argument overload)
    /// @return A new handle of the specified buffer type that contains a deep copy of the current handle
    template <typename OtherBufferT = HostBuffer>
    GridHandle<OtherBufferT> copy(const OtherBufferT& buffer) const;
 
    /// @brief Deep copy without a pool argument. The single-space path
    ///        allocates through the source buffer's resource and never
    ///        constructs a pool buffer, so it works for buffers that are not
    ///        default-constructible, e.g. over a ResourceRef. The host path
    ///        default-constructs the pool argument, so it requires a
    ///        default-constructible OtherBufferT.
    template <typename OtherBufferT = HostBuffer>
    GridHandle<OtherBufferT> copy() const;
 
    /// @brief Return a reference to the buffer
    BufferT&       buffer() { return mBuffer; }
 
    /// @brief Return a const reference to the buffer
    const BufferT& buffer() const { return mBuffer; }
 
    //@{
    /// @brief Returns a pointer to the host data; not available for a
    ///        single-space device buffer, which has no host-readable bytes.
    /// @warning Note that the return pointer can be NULL if the GridHandle was not initialized
    template<typename U = BufferT, typename util::disable_if<BufferIsDeviceOnly<U>::value, int>::type = 0>
    void* data() { return mBuffer.data(); }
    template<typename U = BufferT, typename util::disable_if<BufferIsDeviceOnly<U>::value, int>::type = 0>
    const void* data() const { return mBuffer.data(); }
    //@}
 
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, const void*>::type
    deviceData() const { return mBuffer.deviceData(); }
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, const void*>::type
    deviceData(int device) const { return mBuffer.deviceData(device); }
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, void*>::type
    deviceData() { return mBuffer.deviceData(); }
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, void*>::type
    deviceData(int device) { return mBuffer.deviceData(device); }
 
    //@{
    /// @brief For a single-space buffer the device data is the buffer itself.
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferHasDeviceSingle<U>::value, const void*>::type
    deviceData() const { return mBuffer.data(); }
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferHasDeviceSingle<U>::value, void*>::type
    deviceData() { return mBuffer.data(); }
    //@}
 
    //@{
    /// @brief Returns the size in bytes of the raw memory buffer managed by this GridHandle.
    [[deprecated("Use GridHandle::bufferSize instead.")]] uint64_t size() const { return mBuffer.size(); }
    uint64_t bufferSize() const { return mBuffer.size(); }
    //@}
 
    //@{
    /// @brief Return true if this handle is empty, i.e. has no allocated memory
    bool empty()   const { return mBuffer.size() == 0; }
    bool isEmpty() const { return mBuffer.size() == 0; }
    //@}
 
    /// @brief Return true if this handle is not empty, i.e. contains at least one grid
    operator bool() const { return !this->empty(); }
 
    /// @brief Returns a const host pointer to the @a n'th NanoVDB grid encoded in this GridHandle.
    /// @tparam ValueT Value type of the grid point to be returned
    /// @param n Index of the (host) grid pointer to be returned
    /// @warning Note that the return pointer can be NULL if the GridHandle no host grid, @a n is invalid
    ///          or if the template parameter does not match the specified grid!
    template<typename ValueT, typename U = BufferT, typename util::disable_if<BufferIsDeviceOnly<U>::value, int>::type = 0>
    const NanoGrid<ValueT>* grid(uint32_t n = 0) const;
 
    /// @brief Returns a host pointer to the @a n'th  NanoVDB grid encoded in this GridHandle.
    /// @tparam ValueT Value type of the grid point to be returned
    /// @param n Index of the (host) grid pointer to be returned
    /// @warning Note that the return pointer can be NULL if the GridHandle no host grid, @a n is invalid
    ///          or if the template parameter does not match the specified grid!
    template<typename ValueT, typename U = BufferT, typename util::disable_if<BufferIsDeviceOnly<U>::value, int>::type = 0>
    NanoGrid<ValueT>* grid(uint32_t n = 0) {return const_cast<NanoGrid<ValueT>*>(static_cast<const GridHandle*>(this)->template grid<ValueT>(n));}
 
    /// @brief Return a const pointer to the @a n'th grid encoded in this GridHandle on the device, e.g. GPU
    /// @tparam ValueT Value type of the grid point to be returned
    /// @param n Index of the (device) grid pointer to be returned
    /// @warning Note that the return pointer can be NULL if the GridHandle has no device grid, @a n is invalid,
    ///          or if the template parameter does not match the specified grid.
    template<typename ValueT, typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, const NanoGrid<ValueT>*>::type
    deviceGrid(uint32_t n=0) const;
 
    /// @brief Return a const pointer to the @a n'th grid encoded in this GridHandle on the device, e.g. GPU
    /// @tparam ValueT Value type of the grid point to be returned
    /// @param n Index of the grid pointer to be returned
    /// @warning Note that the return pointer can be NULL if the GridHandle was not initialized, @a n is invalid,
    ///          or if the template parameter does not match the specified grid.
    template<typename ValueT, typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, NanoGrid<ValueT>*>::type
    deviceGrid(uint32_t n=0){return const_cast<NanoGrid<ValueT>*>(static_cast<const GridHandle*>(this)->template deviceGrid<ValueT>(n));}
 
    //@{
    /// @brief Return a pointer to the @a n'th grid of a single-space device buffer
    /// @warning Note that the return pointer can be NULL if the GridHandle is empty, @a n is invalid,
    ///          or if the template parameter does not match the specified grid.
    template<typename ValueT, typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferHasDeviceSingle<U>::value, const NanoGrid<ValueT>*>::type
    deviceGrid(uint32_t n=0) const { return this->template gridAt<ValueT>(mBuffer.data(), n); }
    template<typename ValueT, typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferHasDeviceSingle<U>::value, NanoGrid<ValueT>*>::type
    deviceGrid(uint32_t n=0){return const_cast<NanoGrid<ValueT>*>(static_cast<const GridHandle*>(this)->template deviceGrid<ValueT>(n));}
    //@}
 
    /// @brief Upload the grid to the device, e.g. from CPU to GPU
    /// @note This method is only available if the buffer supports devices
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, void>::type
    deviceUpload(void* stream, bool sync = true) { mBuffer.deviceUpload(stream, sync); }
 
    /// @brief Upload the host buffer to a specific device buffer. It device buffer doesn't exist it's created first
    /// @param device Device to upload host data to
    /// @param stream cuda stream
    /// @param sync if false the memory copy is asynchronous
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, void>::type
    deviceUpload(int device = 0, void* stream = nullptr, bool sync = true) { mBuffer.deviceUpload(device, stream, sync); }
 
    /// @brief Download the grid to from the device, e.g. from GPU to CPU
    /// @note This method is only available if the buffer supports devices
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, void>::type
    deviceDownload(void* stream, bool sync = true) { mBuffer.deviceDownload(stream, sync); }
 
    template<typename U = BufferT>
    typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, void>::type
    deviceDownload(int device = 0, void* stream = nullptr, bool sync = true) { mBuffer.deviceDownload(device, stream, sync); }
 
    /// @brief Check if the buffer is this handle has any padding, i.e. if the buffer is larger than the combined size of all its grids
    /// @return true is the combined size of all grid is smaller than the buffer size
    bool isPadded() const {return mMetaData.empty() ? false : mMetaData.back().offset + mMetaData.back().size != mBuffer.size();}
 
    /// @brief Return the total number of grids contained in this buffer
    uint32_t gridCount() const {return static_cast<uint32_t>(mMetaData.size());}
 
    /// @brief Return the grid size of the @a n'th grid in this GridHandle
    /// @param n index of the grid (assumed to be less than gridCount())
    /// @return Return the byte size of the specified grid
    uint64_t gridSize(uint32_t n = 0) const {return mMetaData[n].size; }
 
    /// @brief compute the total sum of memory footprints of all the grids in this buffer
    /// @return the number of bytes occupied by all grids associated with this buffer
    uint64_t totalGridSize() const {
        uint64_t sum = 0;
        for (auto &m : mMetaData) sum += m.size;
        NANOVDB_ASSERT(sum <= mBuffer.size());
        return sum;
    }
 
    /// @brief compute the size of unused storage in this buffer
    /// @return the number of unused bytes in this buffer.
    uint64_t freeSize() const {return mBuffer.size() - this->totalGridSize();}
 
    /// @brief Test if this buffer has any unused storage left, i.e. memory not occupied by grids
    /// @return true if there is no extra storage left in this buffer, i.e. empty or fully occupied with grids
    bool isFull() const { return this->totalGridSize() == mBuffer.size(); }
 
    /// @brief Return the GridType of the @a n'th grid in this GridHandle
    /// @param n index of the grid (assumed to be less than gridCount())
    /// @return Return the GridType of the specified grid
    GridType gridType(uint32_t n = 0) const {return mMetaData[n].gridType; }
 
    /// @brief Access to the GridData of the n'th grid in the current handle
    /// @param n zero-based ID of the grid
    /// @return Const pointer to the n'th GridData in the current handle
    template<typename U = BufferT, typename util::disable_if<BufferIsDeviceOnly<U>::value, int>::type = 0>
    const GridData* gridData(uint32_t n = 0) const;
 
    /// @brief Returns a const point to the @a n'th grid meta data
    /// @param n zero-based ID of the grid
    /// @warning Note that the return pointer can be NULL if the GridHandle was not initialized
    template<typename U = BufferT, typename util::disable_if<BufferIsDeviceOnly<U>::value, int>::type = 0>
    const GridMetaData* gridMetaData(uint32_t n = 0) const;
 
    /// @brief Write a specific grid in this buffer to an output stream
    /// @param os  output stream that the buffer will be written to
    /// @param n zero-based index of the grid to be written to stream
    void write(std::ostream& os, uint32_t n) const {
        static_assert(!(BufferIsDeviceOnly<BufferT>::value),
                      "GridHandle::write requires host-accessible grids: cuda::copyTo a host-readable handle first");
        if (const GridData* data = this->gridData(n)) {
            os.write((const char*)data, data->mGridSize);
        } else {
            throw std::runtime_error("GridHandle does not contain a #" + std::to_string(n) + " grid");
        }
    }
 
    /// @brief Write the entire grid buffer to an output stream
    /// @param os output stream that the buffer will be written to
    void write(std::ostream& os) const {
        static_assert(!(BufferIsDeviceOnly<BufferT>::value),
                      "GridHandle::write requires host-accessible grids: cuda::copyTo a host-readable handle first");
 
        for (uint32_t n=0; n<this->gridCount(); ++n) this->write(os, n);
    }
 
    /// @brief Write this entire grid buffer to a file
    /// @param fileName string name of the output file
    void write(const std::string &fileName) const {
        std::ofstream os(fileName, std::ios::out | std::ios::binary | std::ios::trunc);
        if (!os.is_open()) throw std::ios_base::failure("Unable to open file named \"" + fileName + "\" for output");
        this->write(os);
    }
 
    /// @brief Write a specific grid to file
    /// @param fileName string name of the output file
    /// @param n zero-based index of the grid to be written to file
    void write(const std::string &fileName, uint32_t n) const {
        std::ofstream os(fileName, std::ios::out | std::ios::binary | std::ios::trunc);
        if (!os.is_open()) throw std::ios_base::failure("Unable to open file named \"" + fileName + "\" for output");
        this->write(os, n);
    }
 
    /// @brief Read an entire raw grid buffer from an input stream
    /// @param is input stream containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param pool optional pool from which to allocate the new grid buffer
    /// @throw Will throw a std::logic_error if the stream does not contain a valid raw grid
    void read(std::istream& is, const BufferT& pool = BufferT());
 
    /// @brief Read a specific grid from an input stream containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param is input stream containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param n zero-based index of the grid to be read
    /// @param pool optional pool from which to allocate the new grid buffer
    /// @throw Will throw a std::logic_error if the stream does not contain a valid raw grid
    void read(std::istream& is, uint32_t n, const BufferT& pool = BufferT());
 
    /// @brief Read a specific grid from an input stream containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param is input stream containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param gridName string name of the grid to be read
    /// @param pool optional pool from which to allocate the new grid buffer
    /// @throw Will throw a std::logic_error if the stream does not contain a valid raw grid with the specified name
    void read(std::istream& is, const std::string &gridName, const BufferT& pool = BufferT());
 
    /// @brief Read a raw grid buffer from a file
    /// @param fileName string name of the input file containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param pool optional pool from which to allocate the new grid buffer
    void read(const std::string &fileName, const BufferT& pool = BufferT()) {
        std::ifstream is(fileName, std::ios::in | std::ios::binary);
        if (!is.is_open()) throw std::ios_base::failure("Unable to open file named \"" + fileName + "\" for input");
        this->read(is, pool);
    }
 
    /// @brief Read a specific grid from a file containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param fileName string name of the input file containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param n zero-based index of the grid to be read
    /// @param pool optional pool from which to allocate the new grid buffer
    /// @throw Will throw a std::ios_base::failure if the file does not exist and a
    ///        std::logic_error if the files does not contain a valid raw grid
    void read(const std::string &fileName, uint32_t n, const BufferT& pool = BufferT()) {
        std::ifstream is(fileName, std::ios::in | std::ios::binary);
        if (!is.is_open()) throw std::ios_base::failure("Unable to open file named \"" + fileName + "\" for input");
        this->read(is, n, pool);
    }
 
    /// @brief Read a specific grid from a file containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param fileName string name of the input file containing a raw grid buffer
    /// @param gridName string name of the grid to be read
    /// @param pool optional pool from which to allocate the new grid buffer
    /// @throw Will throw a std::ios_base::failure if the file does not exist and a
    ///        std::logic_error if the files does not contain a valid raw grid withe the specified name
    void read(const std::string &fileName, const std::string &gridName, const BufferT& pool = BufferT()) {
        std::ifstream is(fileName, std::ios::in | std::ios::binary);
        if (!is.is_open()) throw std::ios_base::failure("Unable to open file named \"" + fileName + "\" for input");
        this->read(is, gridName, pool);
    }
}; // GridHandle
 
// --------------------------> Implementation of private methods in GridHandle <------------------------------------
 
template<typename BufferT>
template<typename U, typename util::disable_if<BufferIsDeviceOnly<U>::value, int>::type>
inline const GridData* GridHandle<BufferT>::gridData(uint32_t n) const
{
    const void *data = this->data();
    if (data == nullptr || n >= mMetaData.size()) return nullptr;
    return util::PtrAdd<GridData>(data, mMetaData[n].offset);
}// const GridData* GridHandle<BufferT>::gridData(uint32_t n) const
 
template<typename BufferT>
template<typename U, typename util::disable_if<BufferIsDeviceOnly<U>::value, int>::type>
inline const GridMetaData* GridHandle<BufferT>::gridMetaData(uint32_t n) const
{
    const auto *data = this->data();
    if (data == nullptr || n >= mMetaData.size()) return nullptr;
    return util::PtrAdd<GridMetaData>(data, mMetaData[n].offset);
}// const GridMetaData* GridHandle<BufferT>::gridMetaData(uint32_t n) const
 
// template specialization of move constructor from a host buffer
template<typename BufferT>
template<typename T, typename util::disable_if<BufferTraits<T>::hasDeviceDual || BufferHasDeviceSingle<T>::value, int>::type>
GridHandle<BufferT>::GridHandle(T&& buffer)
    : mBuffer(std::move(buffer))
{
    static_assert(util::is_same<T,BufferT>::value, "Expected U==BufferT");
    if (auto *data = reinterpret_cast<const GridData*>(mBuffer.data())) {
        detail::parseHostGridChain(data, mBuffer.size(), mMetaData);
    }
}// GridHandle<BufferT>::GridHandle(T&& buffer)
 
template<typename BufferT>
template <typename OtherBufferT>
inline GridHandle<OtherBufferT> GridHandle<BufferT>::copy(const OtherBufferT& other) const
{
    static_assert(!(BufferHasDeviceSingle<BufferT>::value || BufferHasDeviceSingle<OtherBufferT>::value),
                  "GridHandle::copy(pool) cannot honor a pool argument for a single-space device buffer, "
                  "whose copy allocates through the source buffer's resource: use the no-argument copy() "
                  "for a same-space deep copy, or cuda::copyTo (cuda/HandleStorage.h) to cross address spaces");
    if (mBuffer.size() == 0) return GridHandle<OtherBufferT>();// return an empty handle
    auto buffer = detail::createHostStorage<OtherBufferT>(mBuffer.size(), other);
    std::memcpy(buffer.data(), mBuffer.data(), mBuffer.size());// deep copy of buffer
    return GridHandle<OtherBufferT>(std::move(buffer));
}// GridHandle<OtherBufferT> GridHandle<BufferT>::copy(const OtherBufferT& other) const
 
template<typename BufferT>
template <typename OtherBufferT>
inline GridHandle<OtherBufferT> GridHandle<BufferT>::copy() const
{
    if constexpr (BufferHasDeviceSingle<BufferT>::value || BufferHasDeviceSingle<OtherBufferT>::value) {
        static_assert(util::is_same<OtherBufferT, BufferT>::value && BufferHasDeviceSingle<BufferT>::value,
                      "GridHandle::copy is same-space only: a single-space device handle copies to its own "
                      "buffer type; use cuda::copyTo (cuda/HandleStorage.h) to move grids across address spaces");
        // Device-to-device deep copy; for a stream-ordered resource it is
        // ordered on the source's retained stream, so synchronize that stream
        // before reading the result. Metadata is host-resident, so the copy
        // adopts it directly with no device re-parse.
        return GridHandle(mBuffer.copy(), mMetaData);
    } else {
        static_assert(BufferIsDefaultConstructible<OtherBufferT>::value,
                      "GridHandle::copy() without arguments default-constructs the target pool buffer: "
                      "pass a prototype to copy(other) for a buffer over a non-default-constructible resource");
        return this->copy(OtherBufferT());
    }
}// GridHandle<OtherBufferT> GridHandle<BufferT>::copy() const
 
template<typename BufferT>
template<typename ValueT, typename U, typename util::disable_if<BufferIsDeviceOnly<U>::value, int>::type>
inline const NanoGrid<ValueT>* GridHandle<BufferT>::grid(uint32_t n) const
{
    return this->template gridAt<ValueT>(mBuffer.data(), n);
}// const NanoGrid<ValueT>* GridHandle<BufferT>::grid(uint32_t n) const
 
template<typename BufferT>
template<typename ValueT, typename U>
inline typename util::enable_if<BufferTraits<U>::hasDeviceDual, const NanoGrid<ValueT>*>::type
GridHandle<BufferT>::deviceGrid(uint32_t n) const
{
    return this->template gridAt<ValueT>(mBuffer.deviceData(), n);
}// GridHandle<BufferT>::deviceGrid(uint32_t n) cons
 
template<typename BufferT>
void GridHandle<BufferT>::read(std::istream& is, const BufferT& pool)
{
    static_assert(!(BufferIsDeviceOnly<BufferT>::value),
                  "GridHandle::read requires a host-accessible buffer: read into a host-readable handle, then cuda::copyTo");
    const std::streampos start = is.tellg();// remember where the raw buffer begins
    GridData data;
    is.read((char*)&data, sizeof(GridData));
    if (data.isValid()) {
        uint64_t size = data.mGridSize, sum = 0u;
        while(data.mGridIndex + 1u < data.mGridCount) {// loop over remaining raw grids in stream
            is.seekg(data.mGridSize - sizeof(GridData), std::ios::cur);// skip grid
            is.read((char*)&data, sizeof(GridData));
            sum += data.mGridSize;
        }
        auto buffer = detail::createHostStorage(size + sum, pool);
        is.seekg(start);// rewind to the start of the raw buffer
        is.read((char*)(buffer.data()), buffer.size());
        *this = GridHandle(std::move(buffer));
    } else {
        is.seekg(-sizeof(GridData), std::ios::cur);// rewind
        throw std::logic_error("This stream does not contain a valid raw grid buffer");
    }
}// void GridHandle<BufferT>::read(std::istream& is, const BufferT& pool)
 
template<typename BufferT>
void GridHandle<BufferT>::read(std::istream& is, uint32_t n, const BufferT& pool)
{
    static_assert(!(BufferIsDeviceOnly<BufferT>::value),
                  "GridHandle::read requires a host-accessible buffer: read into a host-readable handle, then cuda::copyTo");
    GridData data;
    is.read((char*)&data, sizeof(GridData));
    if (data.isValid()) {
        if (n>=data.mGridCount) throw std::runtime_error("stream does not contain a #" + std::to_string(n) + " grid");
        while(data.mGridIndex != n) {
            is.seekg(data.mGridSize - sizeof(GridData), std::ios::cur);// skip grid
            is.read((char*)&data, sizeof(GridData));
        }
        auto buffer = detail::createHostStorage(data.mGridSize, pool);
        is.seekg(-sizeof(GridData), std::ios::cur);// rewind
        is.read((char*)(buffer.data()), data.mGridSize);
        tools::updateGridCount((GridData*)buffer.data(), 0u, 1u);
        *this = GridHandle(std::move(buffer));
    } else {
        is.seekg(-sizeof(GridData), std::ios::cur);// rewind sizeof(GridData) bytes to undo initial read
        throw std::logic_error("This file does not contain a valid raw buffer");
    }
}// void GridHandle<BufferT>::read(std::istream& is, uint32_t n, const BufferT& pool)
 
template<typename BufferT>
void GridHandle<BufferT>::read(std::istream& is, const std::string &gridName, const BufferT& pool)
{
    static_assert(!(BufferIsDeviceOnly<BufferT>::value),
                  "GridHandle::read requires a host-accessible buffer: read into a host-readable handle, then cuda::copyTo");
    static const std::streamsize byteSize = sizeof(GridData);
    GridData data;
    is.read((char*)&data, byteSize);
    is.seekg(-byteSize, std::ios::cur);// rewind
    if (data.isValid()) {
        uint32_t n = 0;
        while(data.mGridName != gridName && n++ < data.mGridCount) {
            is.seekg(data.mGridSize, std::ios::cur);// skip grid
            is.read((char*)&data, byteSize);// read sizeof(GridData) bytes
            is.seekg(-byteSize, std::ios::cur);// rewind
        }
        if (n>data.mGridCount) throw std::runtime_error("No raw grid named \""+gridName+"\"");
        auto buffer = detail::createHostStorage(data.mGridSize, pool);
        is.read((char*)(buffer.data()), data.mGridSize);
        tools::updateGridCount((GridData*)buffer.data(), 0u, 1u);
        *this = GridHandle(std::move(buffer));
    } else {
        throw std::logic_error("This file does not contain a valid raw buffer");
    }
}// void GridHandle<BufferT>::read(std::istream& is, const std::string &gridName n, const BufferT& pool)
 
// --------------------------> free-standing functions <------------------------------------
 
/// @brief Split all grids in a single GridHandle into a vector of multiple GridHandles each with a single grid
/// @tparam BufferT Type of the input and output grid buffers
/// @param handle GridHandle with grids that will be slip into individual GridHandles
/// @param other optional pool used for allocation of output GridHandle
/// @return Vector of GridHandles each containing a single grid
template<typename BufferT, template <class, class...> class VectorT = std::vector>
inline VectorT<GridHandle<BufferT>>
splitGrids(const GridHandle<BufferT> &handle, const BufferT* other = nullptr)
{
    static_assert(!(BufferIsDeviceOnly<BufferT>::value),
                  "splitGrids requires a buffer type providing create(): cuda::copyTo a HostBuffer handle first");
    static_assert(!BufferHasHostSingle<BufferT>::value,
                  "splitGrids requires a buffer type providing create(): copy the handle to a HostBuffer first");
    using HandleT = GridHandle<BufferT>;
    const void *ptr = handle.data();
    if (ptr == nullptr) return VectorT<HandleT>();
    VectorT<HandleT> handles(handle.gridCount());
    for (auto &h : handles) {
        const GridData *src = reinterpret_cast<const GridData*>(ptr);
        NANOVDB_ASSERT(src->isValid());
        auto buffer = BufferT::create(src->mGridSize, other);
        GridData *dst = reinterpret_cast<GridData*>(buffer.data());
        std::memcpy(dst, src, src->mGridSize);
        tools::updateGridCount(dst, 0u, 1u);
        h = HandleT(std::move(buffer));
        ptr = util::PtrAdd(ptr, src->mGridSize);
    }
    return handles;
}// splitGrids
 
/// @brief Combines (or merges) multiple GridHandles into a single GridHandle containing all grids
/// @tparam BufferT Type of the input and output grid buffers
/// @param handles Vector of GridHandles to be combined
/// @param pool optional pool used for allocation of output GridHandle
/// @return single GridHandle containing all input grids
template<typename BufferT, template <class, class...> class VectorT>
inline GridHandle<BufferT>
mergeGrids(const VectorT<GridHandle<BufferT>> &handles, const BufferT* pool = nullptr)
{
    static_assert(!BufferHasDeviceSingle<BufferT>::value,
                  "mergeGrids requires a buffer type providing create(): cuda::copyTo HostBuffer handles first");
    static_assert(!BufferHasHostSingle<BufferT>::value,
                  "mergeGrids requires a buffer type providing create(): copy the handles to HostBuffer first");
    uint64_t size = 0u;
    uint32_t counter = 0u, gridCount = 0u;
    for (auto &h : handles) {
        gridCount += h.gridCount();
        for (uint32_t n=0; n<h.gridCount(); ++n) size += h.gridSize(n);
    }
    auto buffer = BufferT::create(size, pool);
    void *dst = buffer.data();
    for (auto &h : handles) {
        const void *src = h.data();
        for (uint32_t n=0; n<h.gridCount(); ++n) {
            std::memcpy(dst, src, h.gridSize(n));
            GridData *data = reinterpret_cast<GridData*>(dst);
            NANOVDB_ASSERT(data->isValid());
            tools::updateGridCount(data, counter++, gridCount);
            dst = util::PtrAdd(dst, data->mGridSize);
            src = util::PtrAdd(src, data->mGridSize);
        }
    }
    return GridHandle<BufferT>(std::move(buffer));
}// mergeGrids
 
} // namespace nanovdb
 
#if defined(__CUDACC__)
#include <nanovdb/cuda/GridHandle.cuh>
#endif// defined(__CUDACC__)
 
#endif // NANOVDB_GRID_HANDLE_H_HAS_BEEN_INCLUDED